"All of us who professionally use the mass media are the shapers of society. We can vulgarize that society. We can brutalize it. Or we can help lift it onto a higher level." -- William Bernbach
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The mass media have a powerful influence on how people view the world. Newspapers, radio, and television are frequently the only link to events happening outside of one's neighborhood. A reporter's story on a conflict can be the sole information available to his audience. How the reporter frames the conflict can bias the audience in favor of one party, or one solution, over another. Because the media are so vital not only to presenting and explaining conflicts, but also keeping them from escalating, it is necessary for parties to a conflict and conflict resolution practitioners to know how to work with the media effectively.
Media coverage is at times something to be eagerly sought out, and at other times something to be avoided at all costs. Knowing when to seek coverage and how to handle it, both when it is desired and when it is not, can make a huge difference in how amicably and quickly a conflict is resolved. Journalists benefit from learning more about conflict resolution because it can improve their reporting.
All too often conflict is regarded as more newsworthy than resolution. That does not have to be the case. Bringing journalism and conflict resolution techniques together can result in solid news stories that are beneficial to the conflicts and people covered.
Additional insights into media strategies are offered by Beyond Intractability project participants.
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Publicity
The sayings "any publicity is good publicity" and "there's no such thing as bad publicity" are common in the United States. Unfortunately, they are not always true when dealing with conflict. Conflict resolution professionals are not trying to keep their work a secret, but it is often not possible for them to do their job without some confidentiality. To be successful, mediation and other peace processes require that all parties be allowed to speak candidly at the table and consider a wide range of possible solutions. If they are being recorded, the participants may become self-conscious and careful not to say anything that sounds foolish or angers their constituents. If any party "leaks" the discussions to a reporter, the talks could break down completely over breach of trust.
To avoid these scenarios, conflict resolution professionals need to take preventive action. Before mediation begins in a high-profile conflict, the intermediary should consider meeting with local news outlets. Sitting down with reporters and perhaps newspaper editors and station managers gives conflict professionals a chance to explain how mediation (negotiation, etc.) works and why reporters are not desired at the talks themselves. When the mediation is ready to begin, the mediator should also clearly explain to all participants that a common ground rule is that there will be no individual contact with the media.
Just because one meets with journalists beforehand is not a guarantee that they will still not try to get quotes from participants or get access to the meetings. After all, it is their job to find and report information to the public. Most, however, will be respectful of mediators' requests if the reasons for the secrecy are legitimate and explained thoroughly. As a trade off for not being in the meeting, most mediators will provide journalists with periodic updates and schedule a press conference with all parties present to answer questions after negotiations end. Holding a press conference after mediation or negotiation is a win-win situation in that the parties to the talks can present their success together and journalists have access to all of the participants.
Although publicity frequently can be damaging to conflicts, there are certainly times when it is instrumental. The pressure the media can apply to persons or groups who are seen as hypocritical or malicious is without equal. From expos's on local polluters to the calls for an end to apartheid, the media can educate its audience and agitate for action.
Wanting media attention does not automatically translate into receiving it, however. Whether or not the media will be interested in a particular situation depends on several factors. Generally speaking, news outlets are looking for unusual events that will interest a large audience. Television news also needs events with dramatic visuals. Journalism is not a monolithic entity, but rather a collection of many people and organizations, each with different theories regarding what news is and how it should be reported. Also, each medium has its own constraints. For example a newspaper gains from adding more stories, but television has a limited amount of time and a fickle audience.[1]
Attracting media attention to events that are not automatic media priorities requires "pitching," or marketing, a story to a journalist. Journalists work under extreme time pressures. They are therefore often more willing to work with sources who can provide them with background information in advance, have participants available for interviews on short notice, and return phone calls promptly. It is better to admit not knowing something than to provide false information, as an unreliable source will not be used again. Along the same lines, it is better to present a conflict in the most balanced way possible even if one is biased towards one side. By portraying one's own side as perfect and the other side as completely wrong one loses credibility with the journalist (and general audience) and further alienates the other side.
Another way of gaining media time is to pay for advertising. Because it is a more controllable and repeatable way of appearing in the media, advertising is usually the first choice of those who can afford it. In the United States alone, advertising has grown into a multi-billion-dollar industry.[2] The high cost involved in running a newspaper or a television network has meant that media companies need marketing dollars in order to keep functioning. Advertising consists of all promotions designed to create a desired response in consumers. Advertisements (ads) are designed to sell a product, from the literal sale of dish detergent to the figurative sale of a political platform. Politicians, public interest groups, and even nations use them.[3] The benefit of advertising over publicity is that an organization can say exactly what they want and do not have to share the spotlight, but the downside is that many people view ads far more skeptically than news stories.
Peace Journalism
Peace journalism is a term coined by Johan Galtung to describe a style of reporting which deliberately seeks to de-escalate a conflict through focusing on "conflict transformation."[4] Peace journalists look at a conflict from a resolution point of view and ask questions such as "what are the deeper roots of the conflict?" and "what are the parties' real goals?"[5] This theory of journalism is not without controversy. Many journalists view peace journalism as a departure from strict objectivity and believe that it is overstepping the bounds of journalism. Galtung and others argue that journalists can and ought to do more than report from a distance. As Jannie Botes notes, "The urgent task of preventing genocidal violence should shape the evolution of journalistic paradigms in ways that will enable the profession to contribute to the prevention and resolution of conflict more effectively."[6]
Creating Media
Another side to working with the media is to actually create programming for mass consumption. This is "media" in the sense of content -- stories, television and radio programs, songs, etc. The 1994 massacres in Rwanda were horrifying proof of how strong an impact "hate media" can have on its audience. Radio Mille Collines, a popular radio station in Rwanda at the time, is believed to have played a significant part in the genocide by heightening the fear and tension between the Hutu and Tutsi populations. Before the genocide began, its programming was subtle, but after the killing started it aired such chilling statements as "What are you waiting for? The tombs are empty. Take up your machetes and hack your enemies to pieces."[7] These types of inflammatory statements encouraged the killing that left 800,000 dead in less than 100 days. In response to hate media, groups such as The Search for Common Ground and the United Nations have created "peace media." Peace media introduces tolerance for differences and peaceful conflict resolution techniques by working them into popular entertainment on television and radio.
Studio Ijambo is an example of successful peace media in an area infamous for violent conflict. Created in 1995 by Common Ground Productions[8] and Search for Common Ground Burundi Studio Ijambo was Burundi's first independent radio station. The station employs both Hutu and Tutsi staff to produce news, public affairs, and cultural programming. The station's flagship radio drama, "Our Neighbors, Ourselves," describes the common problems facing neighbors, such as drought and division in the village, and how they overcome them together. A recent survey showed that an estimated 87 percent of Burundians listen to the radio, and 82 percent of those surveyed believe that Common Ground's programs in Burundi greatly help reconciliation. Studio Ijambo reaches an estimated 12 million people throughout the Great Lakes region.[9]
As Loretta Hieber points out in her article "Media as Intervention," there are several stumbling blocks for organizations trying to establish a peace media presence.[10] The first major obstacle is to create partnerships with locally-based media. The difficulty is to find partners who are not seen as biased by the audience and who will not demand content control. The second obstacle is to find a way to get the audience to accept the broadcast. Research shows that the most effective combination for successful communication is a mixture of entertainment and "desired outcome," or message, programming. Audiences will reject any messages that they feel are being imposed on them by outsiders (yet another reason it is useful to have local partners). Finally, once the project is underway it can be hard to measure its effectiveness because of a lack of resources, the scarcity of proven research methods, or difficulty contacting scattered audience members.
While there are many difficulties to be overcome, when peace media does succeed it is an extremely valuable tool for helping to prevent and de-escalate conflicts. Psychologically, a friendly source of news in a time of chaos is very calming, and after a conflict, by making available space or airtime for the expression of grievances, media encourages an essential part of the healing process.[11] [12]
[1] Conflict Research Consortium, "The Role of the Media in Reporting Less-Tractable Conflicts" [article on-line] Working Paper 93-7 (21 October 1993, accessed 24 October 2002); available at http://www.colorado.edu/conflict/full_text_search/AllCRCDocs/93-7.htm; Internet.
[2] http://www.bizstats.com/marketsizes.htm.
[3] Victoria de Grazia, "The Selling of America, Bush Style," The New York Times. 25 August 2002.
[4] Johan Galtung, "High Road, Low Road," [article on-line] Track Two. 7, no. 4. (accessed on 24 October 2002); available at http://ccrweb.ccr.uct.ac.za/archive/two/7_4/p07_highroad_lowroad.html; Internet.
[5] Ibid
[6] Jannie Botes, "Dialogue of the Deaf," [article on-line] Track Two 7, no. 4 (accessed on 24 October 2002); available at http://ccrweb.ccr.uct.ac.za/archive/two/7_4/p04_dialogue_of_deaf.html; Internet.
[7] Giorgio Ruggiu; Radio Television Libre des Mille Collines (RTLM) http://www.rnw.nl/realradio/dossiers/html/rwanda-h.html
[8] The media production arm of The Search for Common Ground. http://www.sfcg.org/activities.cfm?locus=CGP
[9] http://www.sfcg.org/actdetail.cfm?locus=CGP&name=programs&programid=424
[10] Loretta Hieber, "Media as Intervention," [article on-line] Track Two 7, no. 4 (accessed on 24 October 2002); available at http://ccrweb.ccr.uct.ac.za/archive/two/7_4/p16_intervention.html; Internet.
[11] Ibid
[12] Special thanks to Mr. Dick Salem, president of Conflict Management Initiatives, for all of his help in drafting this essay.
Use the following to cite this article:
Akin, Jennifer. "Media Strategies." Beyond Intractability. Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: March 2005 <http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/media_strategies/>.
Sources of Additional, In-depth Information on this Topic
Additional Explanations of the Underlying Concepts:
Online (Web) Sources
Botes, Jannie. "Dialogue of the Deaf: Reframing the Debate Over Media and Conflict." , December 1, 1998
Available at: Click here for more info.
How should the media cover conflict? The debate is widespread and ongoing, both between media professionals and conflict resolution practitioners and within the media itself. Jannie Botes, journalist and conflict resolution theorist, suggests that the media and conflict debate need not be so polarized, and that even the mass media can contribute toward conflict's resolution.
Media as a Mirror, Media as a Leader. 2003.
Available at: http://www.aworldofpossibilities.com/details.cfm?id=140.
An interview with Shahabuddin Quraishi, Gabiela Paz y Mino, Claire Nelson, and Kumi Naidoo. Imagine what it would take in this wired world to make our mass media into a source of awareness and connection rather than distraction and division. In the final program in this series, hear how a transformed media could contribute to a different sense of what we're capable of doing for, and not simply to one another.
Hieber, Loretta. "Media as Intervention: A Report from the Field." , December 1, 1998
Available at: http://ccrweb.ccr.uct.ac.za/archive/two/7_4/p16_intervention.html.
This article from Track Two (vol.7, no.4), looks at media intervention in conflicts, and explains how it can play a crucial role in combating the tragic effects of war on civilians by providing them with long-term and sometimes life-saving social support through the mechanisms of information.
Media as Mediator: Transforming Conflict into Communication. 2004.
Available at: http://www.aworldofpossibilities.com/details.cfm?id=178.
An interview with Barbara O'Brien, Francis Rolt, Lena Slachmuijlder, and Bill Ury. "If it bleeds, it leads," goes the old newsroom rule. In this program, we question whether we're as vile and violent as we're made to appear in the media's mirror as we turn that mirror from the destructiveness of conflict to the drama of resolution. Join us for an exploration of the media as mediator rather than manipulator.
Media Metamorphosis: Trance or Transformation. 2003.
Available at: http://www.aworldofpossibilities.com/details.cfm?id=141.
An interview with Jennifer Glasse, Rami Khouri, Geneva Overholser, Dan Rather, and Nancy Snow. After cheerleading its way into a war with Iraq, the media has come out the other side scratching its head at its own failure to ask the tough questions when it counted most. The watchdog turned lapdog and left government and military leaders unaccountable. Still, maybe there's life in the watchdog yet.
Burmann, Melissa. "Reporting Conflict: Skills for Conflict Analysis." , 1993
Available at: Click here for more info.
The author has compiled several of the frameworks and models used by Harvard University's Conflict Management Group in their workshops for journalists. This particular website lists 2: A framework for analysis and interest analysis, questions that should be answered when evaluating a conflict.
The Benton Foundation: Media Relations. The Benton Foundation.
Available at: http://www.benton.org/publibrary/toolkits/mediarelations.html.
"The Benton Foundation seeks to demonstrate the value of communications for solving social problems. Their media relations page has links to articles on working with the media and a 'tools' section with links to how-to articles."
The Communication Initiative.
Available at: http://www.comminit.com/.
The Communication Initiative is a partnership of development organizations seeking to support advances in the effectiveness and scale of communication interventions for positive international development.
Glaser, Tanya. "The Media as Mediator--Summary." University of Colorado Conflict Research Consortium, 1993.
Available at: http://www.beyondintractability.org/articlesummary/10038/.
This page is a summary of the article, The Media as Mediator, by Melissa Baumann and Hannes Siebert published in NIDR Forum, winter 1993. The authors argue that the media's representatives "define, shape, and often exacerbate conflict by the stories they choose to cover, by those they omit, by the sources they use, by the facts' they include, by the way they use language, and by their own biases, or newsframes."
Shinar, Dov. The Peace Process in Cultural Conflict: The Role of the Media.
Available at: http://www.cco.regener-online.de/2003_1/pdf_2003_1/shinar.pdf.
"This article explores (1) the cultural nature of the Palestinian conflict; (2) the "intractability" of cultural conflicts; (3) conflict management models: reconciliation/"end-of-conflict" versus "conflict transformation" and their relation to cultural conflict; (4) the serious consequences of the wrong matching of models and conflicts, sucha s using the reconciliation model in cultural conflict; (5) the changing role of the media in international relations, and their contribution to the "crisis expectations" that came to fruition in September 2000, with the eruption of the Intifada; (6) the possibility of the media contributing to peace processes; and (7) implications of the media adoption of the conflict transformation model." -Article Abstract
Offline (Print) Sources
Duke, Annette R. "Advocacy By Design: Using Direct Media to Get a Direct Response." The New England Nonprofit Quarterly 1:1, 1900.
This is a short article explaining how nonprofits can effectively use direct media. The author focuses on developing a media strategy.
Ryan, Charlotte. "Beyond the Black Box Approach to Media: A Starter Kit for Nonprofits." The Nonprofit Quarterly 6:1, 1999.
This article concisely lays out how an organization can begin putting together a media strategy.
Kunde, James E. "Dealing With the Press." In The Consensus Building Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide to Reaching Agreement. Edited by Susskind, Lawrence, Jennifer Thomas-Larmer and Sarah McKearnan, eds. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1999.
This chapter seeks to guide facilitators and participants on how to deal with journalists as they pursue a consensus-based process. The author recognizes third parties' reluctance to involve the media in such processes, but argues that the benefits of press coverage can outweigh the downsides. This is possible, however, only if mediators and participants know how to deal with press and take the steps necessary to ensure good coverage.
Frameworks for Interpreting Conflict: A Handbook for Journalists. Fairfax, VA: George Mason University: Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution, 1994.
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Hieber, Loretta. Lifeline Media: Reaching Populations in Crisis: A Guide to Developing Media Projects in Conflict Situations. Geneva: Media Action International (MAI), 2001.
This work is "[a]n indispensable guide for anyone involved in setting up media-related projects in conflict and post-conflict settings. The approach used in the book is designed to ensure that affected populations always have access to well-produced humanitarian information in a manner that enhances local media capacity. The author explores how the skills of professional Western journalists can best be applied in realizing this objective. As a resource for international journalists, producers, relief workers, consultants, and others, Lifeline Media is a unique sourcebook that sees media as a powerful tool in assisting populations in crises." -From Publisher
Strobel, Warren P. "The Media and U.S. Policies Toward Intervention: A Closer Look at the 'CNN Effect'." In Managing Global Chaos: Sources or and Responses to International Conflict. Edited by Crocker, Chester A. and Fen Osler Hampson, eds. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1996.
This chapter examines the role of the meda in reporting on conflict on what effect it has on public opinion, as well as governmental decisions regarding foreign policy. The author of this piece argues that the so-called "CNN Effect" is exaggerated.
Reid, R.P. "Waging Public Relations: A Cornerstone of Fourth Generation Warfare." Journal of Information Warfare 1:3, January 1, 2002.
Ryan, Charlotte. "Why Take Media Seriously?." The New England Nonprofit Quarterly , 1999.
Media work is labor-intensive and prone to failure, but it is essential to the nonprofit sector. The author offers some tips on how to get started in media work.
Siegel, Dan and Jenny Yancey. "Widening the News Lens." The New England Nonprofit Quarterly 6:1, 1999.
The authors argue that nonprofits need to do more to be better understood by the public. The media regularly covers business and government, but there is not similar effort on the part of nonprofits, despite the fact that there are over 1.2 million in the US employing over 10 million people.
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Examples Illustrating this Topic:
Online (Web) Sources
"Communications and Education: Peace Media." , 2002
Available at: Click here for more info.
"Peace media uses radio, television, and print journalism to promote peace, to disseminate truthful information or alternate viewpoints that could turn public sentiment toward peaceful resolution of conflict, or to counter 'hate radio.'" This page includes all the pertinent information regarding peace media as a tool in conflict prevention and resolution.
Guidance to Journalists. Commission for Racial Equality (CRE).
Available at: http://www.cre.gov.uk/media/guidance.html.
This page contains recommendations designed to help in dealing with the way parts of the media report on Traveler and/or Gypsy issues. Coverage of race and ethnic issues across the media has significantly improved over the past 20 years. There has been a wider and more constructive exploration of many questions and a reduction in the use of language that is offensive to members of different ethnic groups. The CRE and those organizations representing Travelers and Gypsies want to see more coverage in the media but are keen to help the media develop a coverage that is honest and fair, open and inclusive.
Galtung, Johan. "High Road, Low Road: Charting the Course for Peace Journalism." Track Two, Vol.7, No.4 , December 1, 1998
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article urges the media not to report the savagery and struggle associated with war, but rather instead to focus on conflict transformation processes that take the conflict towards peace.
Institute for War and Peace Reporting (IWPR).
Available at: http://www.history.com/.
The Institute works to strengthen local journalism in areas of conflict by training reporters, facilitating dialogue and providing reliable information. Their web site provides current stories on media in particular conflict areas, such as the Balkans and Afghanistan, in English and a local language. There are also special reports, workshop announcements, and training materials on the site.
Media Action International (MAI).
Available at: http://www.mediaaction.org.
"Media Action International bridges the gap between journalism and humanitarian, post-conflict and development activities. It uses this unique position to develop strategies to make the best use of the mass media, at a time when its role is recognised widely as key in the fight against illiteracy, poverty and disease."
Lougee, Dave, Jerry Bell and Clifford May. Role of the Media in Reporting Less-Tractable Conflicts. University of Colorado: Conflict Research Consortium.
Available at: Click here for more info.
This paper is an edited transcript of a talk given by Jerry Bell, Dave Lougee and Clifford May for the Intractable Conflict/Constructive Confrontation Project on April 1, 1993. It discusses how the media decides to pick certain stories or events to cover, or issues to focus on.
Wolfsfeld, Gadi. The News Media and Peace Processes: The Middle East and Northern Ireland. United States Institute of Peace.
Available at: http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks37.pdf.
This report explains how and when the media takes different roles in the promotion of peace. They can emphasize the benefits that peace can bring, they can raise the legitimacy of groups or leaders working for peace, and they can help transform images of the enemy. But the media also can serve as destructive agents in a peace process. They can emphasize the risks and dangers associated with compromise, raise the legitimacy of those opposed to concessions, and reinforce negative stereotypes of the enemy.
The Search for Common Ground.
Available at: http://www.sfcg.org/.
The Search for Common Ground is an NGO which designs and implements innovative ways to reframe issues and solve problems. They believe that for conflict prevention to be successful -- no matter how timely and effective the outside assistance -- the political will needs to exist within the country to prevent violence. The methodology of prevention is simply not powerful enough to deter people intent on killing. They believe that prevention works best in a pre-violence state such as Macedonia, where ethnic tensions are high but where violence is not widespread, or in a post-violence state like Angola, where the impulse toward bloodshed has diminished.
Yimsut, Ranachith. "The Tonle Sap Lake Massacre." , 1900
Available at: http://www.edwebproject.org/sideshow/stories/ronnieyimsut.html.
A survivor of the Khmer Rouge tells how a reporter influenced his life.
Creative Associates International. Tool Category G: Communications and Education 25. Media Professionalization.
Available at: Click here for more info.
Provides details on the training of journalists and projects aimed at helping mitigate the inflammatory potential of the media. Has some very brief examples.
Offline (Print) Sources
Restuccia, Rob. "Becoming a Reliable Source." The New England Nonprofit Quarterly 1:1, 1999.
Mr. Restuccia explains how he became a frequently quoted media source.
de Grazia, Victoria. "The Selling of America: Bush Style." The New York Times , August 25, 2002.
This article describes America's public relations campaign to 'sell' U.S. foreign policy abroad.
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Audiovisual Materials on this Topic:
Offline (Print) Sources
No Man's Land: Women Frontline Journalists . Directed and/or Produced by: Saywell, Shelley. First Run Icarus Films. 1994.
This film profiles women war correspondents. Click here for more info.
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